HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION second edition Dix, Finlay, Abowd and Beale detailed contents

Foreword xi

Preface to the second edition xiii

Preface to the first edition xv

Introduction 1

Part I - Foundations 9

Chapter 1 - The human

Overview

1.1 Introduction 12

1.2 Input--output Channels 13

1.2.1 Vision 14

Design Focus: Getting noticed 16

1.2.2 Hearing 22

Worked exercise: using sound in interfaces 24

1.2.3 Touch 24

1.2.4 Movement 25

1.3 Human memory 26

1.3.1 Sensory memory 27

1.3.2 Short-term memory 28

Design Focus: Cashing in 29

1.3.3 Long-term memory 30

1.4 Thinking: reasoning and problem-solving 36

1.4.1 Reasoning 38

1.4.2 Problem-solving 40

Worked exercise: goals and operators 42

1.4.3 Skill acquisition 44

1.4.4 Errors and mental models 46

Design Focus: Whose error? 47

1.5 Individual differences 48

1.6 Psychology and the design of interactive systems 48

1.6.1 Guidelines 49

1.6.2 Models to support design 49

1.6.3 Techniques for evaluation 49

Worked exercise: semantic networks 50

1.7 Summary 51

Exercises 51

Recommended reading 51

Chapter 2 - The computer

Overview

2.1 Introduction 54

2.1.1 A typical computer system 55

2.1.2 Batch and interactive input 55

2.2 Text entry devices 56

2.2.1 The keyboard 56

2.2.2 Other text entry devices 60

2.3 Positioning and pointing devices 63

2.3.1 The mouse 63

2.3.2 Other 2D positioning devices 65

2.3.3 Keyboard-based positioning devices 67

2.3.4 Classifying 2D pointing devices 69

2.3.5 Positioning in 3D space 69

2.4 Output devices 72

2.4.1 Cathode ray tube 72

2.4.2 Liquid crystal display (LCD) 76

2.4.3 3D displays 77

2.5 Paper: printing and scanning 79

2.5.1 Printing 79

2.5.2 Fonts and page description languages 82

2.5.3 Screen and page 84

2.5.4 Scanners and optical character recognition 85

Worked exercise: input and output devices 87

2.6 Memory 89

2.6.1 Short-term memory 89

2.6.2 Long-term memory 90

2.6.3 Understanding speed and capacity 91

2.6.4 Compression 92

2.6.5 Storage format and standards 93

2.6.6 Methods of access 94

Worked exercise: basic architecture of a system 95

2.7 Processing 96

2.7.1 Effects of finite processor speed 96

Design Focus: The myth of the infinitely fast machine 97

2.7.2 Limitations on interactive performance 98

2.7.3 Networked computing 98

Worked exercise: effects of advances in memory/processing power 100

2.8 Summary 101

Recommended reading 102

Chapter 3 - The interaction

Overview

3.1 Introduction 103

3.2 Models of interaction 104

3.2.1 The terms of interaction 104

3.2.2 The execution--evaluation cycle 105

3.2.3 The interaction framework 106

Design Focus: VCR 109

3.3 Frameworks and HCI 109

3.4 Ergonomics 110

3.4.1 Arrangement of controls and displays 111

Design Focus: Industrial interfaces 112

3.4.2 The physical environment of the interaction 113

3.4.3 Health issues 114

3.4.4 The use of colour 115

3.4.5 Ergonomics and HCI 115

3.5 Interaction styles 115

3.5.1 Command line interface 116

3.5.2 Menus 117

3.5.3 Natural language 117

3.5.4 Question/answer and query dialog 118

3.5.5 Form-fills and spreadsheets 119

3.5.6 The WIMP interface 120

3.5.7 Point-and-click interfaces 121

3.5.8 Three-dimensional interfaces 122

3.6 Elements of the WIMP interface 123

3.6.1 Windows 124

3.6.2 Icons 125

3.6.3 Pointers 125

3.6.4 Menus 127

3.6.5 Buttons 129

3.6.6 Toolbars 129

Design Focus: Learning toolbars 129

3.6.7 Palettes 130

3.6.8 Dialog boxes 130

3.7 Screen design and layout 131

3.7.1 Presenting information 131

Design Focus: Checking screen colours 132

3.7.2 Entering information 133

3.7.3 Aesthetics and utility 134

3.7.4 Knowing what to do 134

3.7.5 Localisation/internationalisation 135

3.8 Interactivity 136

3.9 The context of the interaction 137

3.10 Summary 138

Exercises 139

Recommended reading 139

Part II - Design practice 141

Chapter 4 - Usability paradigms and principles

Overview

4.1 Introduction 143

4.2 Paradigms for interaction 144

4.2.1 Time-sharing 145

4.2.2 Video display units 145

4.2.3 Programming toolkits 146

4.2.4 Personal computing 147

4.2.5 Window systems and the WIMP interface 148

4.2.6 The metaphor 148

4.2.7 Direct manipulation 150

4.2.8 Language versus action 152

4.2.9 Hypertext 153

4.2.10 Multi-modality 154

4.2.11 Computer-supported cooperative work 155

4.2.12 The world-wide web 155

4.2.13 Agent-based interfaces 157

4.2.14 Ubiquitous computing 158

4.3 Principles to support usability 162

4.3.1 Learnability 162

4.3.2 Flexibility 167

4.3.3 Robustness 172

Worked exercise: direct manipulation interfaces 175

4.4 Summary 177

Exercises 177

Recommended reading 177

Chapter 5 - The design process

Overview

5.1 Introduction 179

5.2 The software life cycle 179

5.2.1 Activities in the life cycle 180

5.2.2 Validation and verification 184

5.2.3 Management and contractual issues 185

5.2.4 Interactive systems and the software life cycle 187

5.3 Using design rules 190

5.3.1 Standards 191

5.3.2 Guidelines 193

Worked exercise: guidelines 197

5.4 Usability engineering 199

5.4.1 Problems with usability engineering 203

Worked exercise: usability specification 203

5.5 Iterative design and prototyping 205

5.5.1 Techniques for prototyping 208

Design Focus: Prototyping in practice 209

5.5.2 Warning about iterative design 211

5.6 Design rationale 212

5.6.1 Process-oriented design rationale 214

5.6.2 Design space analysis 216

5.6.3 Psychological design rationale 217

Worked exercise: design rationale 219

5.7 Summary 220

Exercises 220

Recommended reading 221

Chapter 6 - Models of the user in design

Overview

6.1 Introduction 223

6.2 User requirements modelling 223

6.3 Socio-technical models 224

6.3.1 USTM/CUSTOM 224

6.3.2 OSTA 226

6.3.3 ETHICS 226

6.4 Soft systems methodology 227

6.5 Participatory design 229

6.6 Cognitive models 230

6.7 Goal and task hierarchies 231

6.7.1 GOMS 233

Design Focus: GOMS saves money 234

Worked exercise: GOMS 235

6.7.2 Cognitive complexity theory 235

6.7.3 Problems and extensions of goal hierarchies 240

6.8 Linguistic models 241

6.8.1 BNF 241

6.8.2 Task-action grammar 242

6.9 The challenge of display-based systems 245

6.10 Physical and device models 246

6.10.1 Keystroke level model 246

Worked exercise: keystroke level analysis 250

6.10.2 Three-state model 251

6.11 Cognitive architectures 254

6.11.1 The problem space model 254

6.11.2 Interacting cognitive sub-systems 256

6.12 Summary 257

Exercises 258

Recommended reading 259

Chapter 7 - Task analysis

Overview

7.1 Introduction 260

7.2 Differences between task analysis and other techniques 261

7.3 Task decomposition 262

7.4 Knowledge-based analysis 268

7.5 Entity--relationship-based techniques 274

Worked exercise: hierarchical task analysis 279

7.6 Sources of information and data collection 280

7.6.1 Documentation 281

7.6.2 Observation 281

Worked exercise: search strategies 282

7.6.3 Interviews 285

7.6.4 Initial analysis 286

7.6.5 Sorting and classification 286

7.7 Uses of task analysis 287

7.7.1 Manuals and tuition 287

7.7.2 Requirements capture and systems design 289

7.7.3 Detailed interface design 289

7.8 Summary 290

Exercises 291

Recommended reading 291

Chapter 8 - Dialog notations and design

Overview

8.1 What is dialog? 292

8.1.1 Structured human dialogs 293

8.2 Dialog design notations 294

8.3 Diagrammatic notations 296

8.3.1 State transition networks 296

8.3.2 Hierarchical state transition nets 297

Design Focus: Using STNs in prototyping 299

8.3.3 Concurrent dialogs and combinatorial explosion of states 300

8.3.4 Escapes and help 303

8.3.5 Petri nets 305

8.3.6 State charts 306

please see errata

8.3.7 Flow charts 307

8.3.8 JSD diagrams 309

Design Focus: Digital watch -- documentation and analysis 311

8.4 Textual dialog notations 313

8.4.1 Grammars 313

8.4.2 Production rules 314

8.4.3 CSP and event algebras 318

Worked exercise: dialog notations 320

8.4.4 Parametrized and dynamic interleaved dialog structure 323

8.5 Dialog semantics 324

8.5.1 Notation-specific semantics 325

8.5.2 Links to programming languages 325

8.5.3 Links to formal specification 326

8.5.4 Distributed and centralized dialog description 328

8.5.5 Maximizing syntactic description 328

8.6 Dialog analysis and design 330

8.6.1 Action properties 330

8.6.2 State properties 332

8.6.3 Presentation and lexical properties 335

8.7 Summary 337

Exercises 338

Recommended reading 339

Chapter 9 - Models of the system

Overview

9.1 Introduction 341

9.2 Standard formalisms 341

9.2.1 Formal notations for communication 342

9.2.2 Formal notations for analysis 342

9.2.3 Model-oriented notations 343

9.2.4 Issues for model-oriented notations 347

9.2.5 Algebraic notations 348

9.2.6 Temporal and other logics 351

9.3 Interaction models 354

9.3.1 The PIE model 355

9.3.2 Predictability and observability 357

Worked exercise: interaction models 360

9.3.3 Reachability and undo 361

9.3.4 Other interaction models 363

9.4 Status/event analysis 365

9.4.1 Properties of events: clocks and calendars 366

9.4.2 Design implications 367

9.4.3 Naive psychology 367

9.4.4 Example -- email interface 368

9.4.5 Example -- screen button feedback 371

9.5 Summary 373

Exercises 374

Recommended reading 375

Chapter 10 - Implementation support

Overview

10.1 Introduction 378

10.2 Elements of windowing systems 379

10.2.1 Architectures of windowing systems 380

10.3 Programming the application 384

Design Focus: Going with the grain 389

10.4 Using toolkits 390

Design Focus: Java and AWT 392

Worked exercise: interaction objects: usability and implementation 393

10.5 User interface management systems 395

10.5.1 UIMS as a conceptual architecture 395

10.5.2 Implementation considerations 399

10.6 Summary 402

Exercises 403

Recommended reading 403

Chapter 11 - Evaluation techniques

Overview

11.1 What is evaluation? 406

11.2 Goals of evaluation 406

11.3 Styles of evaluation 407

11.3.1 Laboratory studies 407

11.3.2 Field studies 407

11.4 Evaluating the design 408

11.4.1 Cognitive walkthrough 409

11.4.2 Heuristic evaluation 412

11.4.3 Review-based evaluation 415

11.4.4 Model-based evaluation 415

11.5 Evaluating the implementation 415

11.5.1 Empirical methods: experimental evaluation 416

11.5.2 Observational techniques 427

11.5.3 Query techniques 431

Worked exercise: evaluation methods 434

11.6 Choosing an evaluation method 436

11.6.1 Factors distinguishing evaluation techniques 436

11.6.2 A classification of evaluation techniques 439

11.7 Summary 440

Exercises 441

Recommended reading 441

Overview

12.1 Introduction 444

12.2 Requirements of user support 445

12.2.1 Availability 445

12.2.2 Accuracy and completeness 445

12.2.3 Consistency 445

12.2.4 Robustness 446

12.2.5 Flexibility 446

12.2.6 Unobtrusiveness 446

12.3 Approaches to user support 446

12.3.1 Command assistance 447

12.3.2 Command prompts 447

12.3.3 Context-sensitive help 447

12.3.4 On-line tutorials 447

12.3.5 On-line documentation 447

12.4 Adaptive help systems 450

12.4.1 Knowledge representation: user modelling 451

12.4.2 Knowledge representation: domain and task modelling 453

12.4.3 Knowledge representation: modelling advisory strategy 453

12.4.4 Techniques for knowledge representation 454

12.4.5 Problems with knowledge representation and modelling 455

12.4.6 Other issues 456

12.5 Designing user support systems 457

12.5.1 Presentation issues 457

12.5.2 Implementation issues 458

12.6 Summary 459

Exercises 459

Recommended reading 460

Part III - Application areas 461

Chapter 13 - Groupware

Overview

13.1 Introduction 463

13.2 Groupware systems 464

13.3 Computer-mediated communication 467

13.3.1 Email and bulletin boards 467

13.3.2 Structured message systems 469

13.3.3 Video conferences and communication 471

13.3.4 Virtual collaborative environments 474

13.4 Meeting and decision support systems 476

13.4.1 Argumentation tools 476

13.4.2 Meeting rooms 477

13.4.3 Shared work surfaces 480

13.5 Shared applications and artefacts 481

13.5.1 Shared PCs and shared window systems 481

13.5.2 Shared editors 482

13.5.3 Co-authoring systems 484

13.5.4 Shared diaries 485

13.5.5 Communication through the artefact 486

13.6 Frameworks for groupware 488

13.6.1 Time/space matrix and asynchronous working 488

Worked exercise: computer-mediated communication 490

13.6.2 Shared information 491

13.6.3 Integrating communication and work 494

13.7 Implementing synchronous groupware 496

13.7.1 Feedback and network delays 496

13.7.2 Architectures for groupware 497

13.7.3 Shared window architectures 498

13.7.4 Feedthrough and network traffic 500

13.7.5 Graphical toolkits 501

13.7.6 Robustness and scaleability 502

13.8 Summary 506

Exercises 507

Recommended reading 507

Chapter 14 - CSCW and social issues

Overview

14.1 Introduction 510

14.2 Face-to-face communication 511

14.2.1 Transfer effects and personal space 511

14.2.2 Eye contact and gaze 512

14.2.3 Gestures and body language 513

14.2.4 Back channels, confirmation and interruption 513

14.2.5 Turn-taking 514

14.3 Conversation 516

14.3.1 Basic conversational structure 516

14.3.2 Context 518

14.3.3 Topics, focus and forms of utterance 519

14.3.4 Breakdown and repair 521

14.3.5 Constructing a shared understanding 522

14.3.6 Speech act theory 524

14.4 Text-based communication 528

14.4.1 Back channels and affective state 529

14.4.2 Grounding constraints 530

14.4.3 Turn-taking 532

14.4.4 Context and deixis 533

14.4.5 Pace and granularity 534

14.4.6 Linear text vs. hypertext 537

14.5 Group working 537

14.5.1 Group dynamics 537

14.5.2 Physical layout 538

14.5.3 Distributed cognition 540

14.5.4 Experimental studies 540

14.5.5 Field studies 543

14.6 Organizational issues 544

Design Focus: Implementing workflow in Lotus Notes 549

14.6.1 Who benefits? 544

14.6.2 Free rider problem 545

14.6.3 Critical mass 545

14.6.4 Cooperation or conflict? 546

14.6.5 Changing power structures 547

14.6.6 The invisible worker 548

14.6.7 Automating processes -- workflow and BPR 548

Design Focus: Implementing workflow in Lotus Notes 549

14.6.8 Evaluating the benefits 550

14.7 Summary 550

Exercises 551

Recommended reading 552

Chapter 15 - Out of the glass box

Overview

15.1 Introduction 554

15.2 Multi-modal and multimedia systems 555

15.3 Speech in the interface 556

15.3.1 Structure of speech 556

15.3.2 Speech recognition 557

15.3.3 Speech synthesis 559

Design Focus: Mathematics for the blind 559

15.3.4 Uninterpreted speech 561

Design Focus: Choosing the right kind of speech 561

15.4 Non-speech Sound 562

15.4.1 Auditory icons 564

Worked exercise: auditory icons 565

15.4.2 Earcons 566

15.5 Handwriting Recognition 567

15.5.1 The technology 567

Design Focus: Apple Newton 567

15.5.2 Recognizing handwriting 568

15.6 Gesture recognition 569

15.7 Computer vision 569

15.8 Ubiquitous computing applications research 570

15.8.1 Automated capture, integration and access 571

15.8.2 Context-aware computing 573

15.8.3 Ubiquitous software services 574

15.8.4 Open research issues 574

please see errata

15.8.5 Other issues with ubiquitous computing 575

15.8.6 Cross-pollination of themes 575

15.8.7 Engineering, technology push and HCI research 576

15.9 Interfaces for users with special needs 576

15.10 Virtual reality 578

15.10.1 VR technology 578

15.10.2 Immersive virtual reality 579

15.10.3 VR on the desktop and in the home 580

please see errata

15.10.4 Command and control 581

15.10.5 Augmented reality 581

15.10.6 Current and future applications of virtual reality 582

Design Focus: Applications of augmented reality 582

15.11 Information and data visualisation 583

15.11.1 Scientific and technical data 583

Design Focus: Getting the size right 585

15.11.2 Structured information 585

15.11.3 Time and interactivity 587

15.12 Summary 590

Exercises 591

Recommended reading 591

Chapter 16 - Hypertext, multimedia and the World Wide Web

Overview

16.1 Introduction 593

16.2 Text, hypertext and multimedia 593

16.2.1 Applications of hypermedia 594

16.2.2 Problems with hypermedia 595

16.3 The World Wide Web 596

16.4 Animation 598

16.5 Video and digital video 599

16.6 Educational technology 600

16.7 Design Focus: Designing for the World Wide Web 602

16.7.1 The World Wide Web 602

16.7.2 The Message and the medium 603

16.7.3 Information structure 604

16.7.4 Text 605

16.7.5 Graphics 606

16.7.6 Movies and sound 609

16.8 Summary 609

Exercises 610

Recommended reading 610

References 611

Index 628

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